середа, 4 травня 2016 р.

Ukraine II (Vocabulary and exercises)

UKRAINE

A new state, Ukraine, appeared on the world political map in 1991. Ukraine is situated in north-eastern part of Central Europe being the largest wholly European country. Ukraine occupies an area of 603,700 square kilometers. The territory of Ukraine extends 900 kilometers from north to south and 1,316 kilometers from east to west. In the north Ukraine borders on Belarus; in the east and north-east, on Russia; in the south-west, on Hungary, Romania and Moldova; in the west, on Poland and Slovakia. In the south Ukraine is washed by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The total length of the frontiers is 6, 500 kilometers, including 1,050 kilometers of the sea frontiers. In the north of Ukraine there are forests, in the west – the Carpathian Mountains, in the eastern and central Ukraine – black-soil steppe lands.

Ukraine consists of 24 oblasts (provinces) which are further subdivided into geographical regions (rayons). The capital of the country – Kyiv – has special legal status. The biggest cities of Ukraine are Kharkiv, Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Donetsk, Odessa, and others.

Ukraine consists almost entirely of plains. Mountainous areas such as the Ukrainian Carpathians rising to 6,762 feet (2,061 metres) at Mount Hoverla, the highest point in the country, occur only on the country’s borders and account for barely 5 percent of its area. The Carpathians are covered with mixed forests of pine, fir, beech and oak trees and meadows here which are called “polonyna”.

The climate of Ukraine is determined by its geographical location. Ukraine’s territory lies in the temperate belt. In general, the country’s climate is temperately continental, being subtropical only on the southern coast of the Crimea. The difference in climate is caused by many factors: the latitude, relief, altitude and proximity to seas and oceans. A feature of Ukraine’s climate is the considerable changes in the weather conditions from year to year. Alongside very wet years there can be droughts, whose effect increases to the south and east.

The territory of Ukraine is crossed by such rivers as the Dnieper (the main river of the country and the third longest river in Europe), the Dniester, the Danube, the Southern Buh and the Seversky Donets that flow into the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. As for lakes, Ukraine has a few natural ones, all of them small, the largest of which being Svityaz and Yalpug.

Ukraine is a developed industrial and agricultural country. It’s rich in iron ore, coal, natural gas, oil, salt and other mineral resources. Ukraine has such branches of industry as metallurgy, machine-building, power industry, chemical industry and agriculture.

On the 24th of August, 1991 Ukraine became an independent state. The national symbols of Ukraine are the National Flag (blue and yellow banner made from two equal horizontal stripes), the National Emblem (Tryzub (the Trident), symbolizing the united historical development of the Ukrainian people) and the National Anthem (“Shche ne umerlaUkraina”,(“Ukraine Has Not Yet Perished”) with the music of M. Verbytsky). The Constitution of Ukraine (adopted on June 28, 1996) consists of 15 chapters, 161 articles.

Nowadays Ukraine is a democratic state, ruled by the law and created as an implementation of the people’s sovereign right to self-determination. The form of governing is presidential republic. President is the Head of the state. He is also the head of the executive branch of power. President is elected by the people of the country at a general election for a period of 5 years. He can’t be elected for more than 3 terms. According to the laws of Ukraine a president can’t be younger than 35 years old, he must live in the country no less than 10 years, be a citizen of Ukraine and master the national language.

The legislative power is carried out by the Parliament (or Supreme Council) which consists of 450 members. The laws of the country are made by them.

Executive power is carried out by the government of the Cabinet of Ministers, which is responsible for the realization of laws adopted by the Supreme Council.

Judicial power is performed by the system of courts, the highest of them is the Supreme Court.

The population of Ukraine numbers nearly 48 million: three-fourths of them are Ukrainians. The rest is made up of Russians, Jews, Poles, Belorussians, Moldavians, Hungarians and dozens of other nationalities. Over 55% of the population are urban dwellers.

Ukrainian scientists have enriched the world science with important discoveries and inventions. They do significant research work in biology, medicine, nuclear physics, chemistry, etc.

Useful words and expressions:

to extend – простягатися

to border(on) – межувати з

frontier – кордон, межа

black-soil steppe lands – чорноземні степи

to be subdivided into – ділитись на

meadow – луга, луг

to determine – визначати

temperate belt – помірний пояс

temperately continental – помірно- континентальний

latitude – широта

relief – рельєф

altitude – висота

proximity – близкість

considerable – знатний

alongside – поруч, наряду

drought – засуха

implementation – впровадження

self -determination – самовизначення

the Supreme Council – Верховна Рада

executive – виконавчий

legislative – законодавчий

to be responsible for – бути відповідальним за

to adopt – приймати

Judicial – судовий

The Supreme Court – Верховний Суд

The Trident – Тризуб

Anthem – гімн

I. Put the appropriate words into sentences:

1. In the south Ukraine is washed by the … and the….

2. The … length of the frontiers is 6, 500 kilometers, including 1,050 kilometers of the

sea frontiers.

3. The highest point of the Ukrainian Carphatians is …– 2,061metres above the sea

level.

4. The … of Ukraine is determined by its geographical location.

5. On the …of … … Ukraine became an independent state.

6. President is elected by the people of the country at a general election for a period of

… years.

II. Put a verb in the right tense form

1. Ukraine (to occupy) an area of 603,700 square kilometers.

2. The Carpathians (to be situated) in Europe and stretch through Hungary, Poland, Romania, including Ukraine.

3. In 1991 Ukraine (to become) an independent state.

4. He can’t (to be elected) for more than 3 terms.

5. Judicial power (to be performed) by the system of courts, the highest of them (to be) the Supreme Court.

6. The Constitution of Ukraine (to consist) of 15 chapters, 161 articles.

III. Compose a phrase

temperate	Mountains
square	Emblem
Carpathian	industry
Black	belt
south-	Court
Supreme	conditions
chemical	kilometers
weather	Sea
National	west

IV. State whether a statement is true (T) or false (F)

1. In the south-west Ukraine borders on Hungary, Romania and Belarus.

2. The biggest cities of Ukraine are Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk and Poltava.

3. Mountainous areas account for barely 5 percent of its area.

4. Ukraine’s territory lies in the temperate belt.

5. Ukraine is rich in iron ore, coal, natural gas, oil, salt and other mineral resources.

6. Ukraine became an independent state on the 24th of August, 1992.

7. President is the head of the legislative branch of power.

8. The Parliament (or Supreme Council) which consists of 450 members.

9. One-fourths of the population of Ukraine are Ukrainians.

10.Ukraine scientists do significant research work in biology, medicine, nuclear physics, chemistry, etc.

V. Fill in the gaps with the correct preposition

1. In the north Ukraine borders ___ Belarus; in the east and north-east, ___ Russia; in the south-west, ___ Hungary, Romania and Moldova; in the west, ___ Poland and Slovakia.

2. Ukraine consists of 24 oblasts (provinces) which are further subdivided ___ geographical regions (rayons).

3. Ukraine consists almost entirely ___ plains.

4. The Carpathians are covered ___ mixed forests of pine, fir, beech and oak trees.

5.Ukraine is rich ___ iron ore, coal, natural gas, oil, salt and other mineral resources.

6. The National Flag of Ukraine is a blue and yellow banner made ___ two equal horizontal stripes.

7.According ___ the laws of Ukraine a president can’t be younger than 35 years old.

8. The legislative power is carried ___ by the Parliament (or Supreme Council).

9. The Cabinet of Ministers is responsible ___ the realization of laws adopted by the Supreme Council.

10. The rest is made ___ ___ Russians, Jews, Poles, Belorussians, Moldavians, Hungarians and dozens of other nationalities.

11. Ukrainian scientists have enriched the world science ___ important discoveries and inventions.

Ukraine

Ukraine is a sovereign state; its independence was proclaimed in 1991. Ukraine is situated in the east of Europe. The territory of Ukraine is 603 700 square kilometres. Ukraine borders on Russia, Belarus, Poland, Moldova, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. It’s washed by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov and has very important ports. Ukraine is larger than France and Great Britain but considerably smaller than Russia. 5% of Ukraine’s territory is mountainous; the rest part of the Ukrainian area is flat. Ukraine has the Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains. The Carpathians is the natural mountainous boundary of Ukraine. They are covered with mixed forests of pine, fir, beech and oak trees. There are the thickest forests in Volyn, which are part of the famous Byelovezhskaya Puscha.
The climate of Ukraine is determined by its geographical location. Ukraine's territory lies in the temperate belt. In general the country's climate is climate is temperately continental, being subtropical only on the southern coast of the Crimea. The differences in climate are caused by many factors: the latitude, relief, altitude and proximity to seas and oceans. A characteristic feature of the climate is an increase in its continental nature from west to east.
A feature of Ukraine's climate is the considerable fluctuation in weather conditions from year to year. Alongside very wet years there can be droughts, whose effect increases to the south and east. There are frequent oscillations in weather in the regions of the Crimean and Carpathian Mountains.
The Dnieper is the main river of the country; moreover, it’s the third longest river in Europe. Such rivers as the Dniester, the Danube, the Southern Bug and the Seversky Donets are also important. The population of our country is about 46 million people. Besides Ukrainians the representatives of many other nationalities live there: Russians, Jews, Belarusians, Moldavians, Romanians, Greeks, Tatars, Poles, Armenians, Germans, Gypsies and other ethnic minorities. They contributed to Ukraine’s culture and history. The biggest cities of Ukraine are Kyiv, Kharkiv, Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Donetsk, Odessa, Mykolaiv and others.
The power in the country is divided into legislative, executive and judiciary.
The main legislative body of Ukraine is the Verkhovna Rada, which consists of 450 deputies. The elections to the Verkhovna Rada are held every 4 years on the last week of March. The deputies are elected by equal, secret or direct ballot. The highest executive body is the president. He can veto any decision of the Verkhovna Rada. The president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Ukraine. He also represents the state in the international relations. Another part of the executive branch is the Cabinet of Ministers, which is headed by the Prime-Minister. The Cabinet of Ministers coordinates the daily administration of the government and may introduce bills to the Verkhovna Rada. The judiciary power belongs to the Constitutional Court and regional courts. The state symbols of Ukraine are the national flag and emblem. They root deeply in ancient times and have symbolic meaning. Azure-yellow state flag symbolizes the unity of blue sky and yellow wheat field. The little state emblem — trident — appeared first on the seals in times of Volodymyr the Great.
Ukraine is a developed industrial and agricultural country. It’s rich in iron ore, coal, natural gas, oil, salt and other mineral resources. Ukraine has such branches of industry as metallurgy, machine-building, power industry, chemical industry and agriculture. Scientists of Ukraine make their contributions of important discoveries and inventions to the world science.
Ukraine has a rich historical and cultural heritage. There are many higher educational establishments, theatres, libraries, museums, art galleries in Ukraine. It’s also famous for many outstanding writers, poets and musicians.

Ukraine is a member of the United Nation Organization and takes part in the work of many international organizations.

Follow the link to improve your grammar

http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/tenses/past_perfect_simple_past.htm

http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/tenses/past_perfect_mix.htm

неділя, 1 травня 2016 р.

Easter in Ukraine

One of the sweetest memories I have about my childhood in Ukraine is celebrating Easter.

We did not have any candies, egg hunt or huge baskets with oversized bunnies or filled with present.

But it still was very exciting holiday because Ukrainian Easter celebrations are a beautiful melding of traditional Christian practices, folklore, and ancient pagan symbolism. Some traditions will be familiar to Christians all around the world, while others are uniquely Ukrainian.

Lent and Holy Week

The biggest joy of Eater Sunday for many people simply comes from enjoying food-eggs, sweet bread and meat- that they did not eat for the past 6 weeks during lent. Lent – the period of fasting before Easter — is practiced in Ukraine much as it is elsewhere. Religious observant refrain from eating animal products: meat, eggs, and dairy. Now imagine how exited you would be to feast after weeks of very moderate diet?

The whole week before Ester Sunday is devoted to the preparations for the actual Easter celebration

Holy Week – as it is called– begins with Willow Sunday. In most countries this celebration of Christ’s entry into Jerusalem is called Palm Sunday, but a combination of pre-Christian pagan symbolism and a lack of local palm trees led Ukrainians to adopt willow switches as their symbolic branches.

Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday are spent preparing food for the Easter: dyeing eggs, baking eastern bread Paska and roasting meat. All of the food has to be prepared by so calledClean Thursday, because on that day we have a different chore – cleaning the house and yourself. My grandmother would wake me and my sister up and take us to a closest creek. We had to rinse our faces with freezing cold water as the sun was rising. That was really refreshing and we were wide awake after this early washing! Also she believed that this procedure will give us beauty as we grow up into young ladies.

Good Friday is also called Mourning Friday because it is the day when Christ had died. People are not supposed to eat anything and spend the day on the service in church. No work is allowed either.

Saturday is the rest day because there is a whole night service coming and you have to be wide awake.

Now let’s jump to the delicious part of the Easter and this article.

Pysanka (Dyed Eggs)

Ukraine’s most famous cultural product may be its colorfully dyed eggs.

Pysanka (which comes from the Ukrainian word for “to write”) are not painted; instead, designs are traced out in beeswax and the egg is then dipped into dye. The dye colors the egg where it is bare but leaves it white where the wax protects it. The process is then repeated as many times as desired (working from the lightest dye to the darkest) to create an intricate, many-layered pattern.

Most people these days call any patterned Ukrainian Easter egg a “pysanka,” but there are dozens of terms referring to specific methods of preparation. The most important difference to know is that “pysanka” are raw eggs (sometimes drained through a tiny drilled hole so that they may be preserved), while “krashanky” are dyed hardboiled eggs, usually one simple color, meant for eating at the Easter feast.

“Pysanka” is a piece of art and requires good amount of time to create it. That is why most people dye couple dozens of “krashanky”. Traditionally Ukrainians used natural dyes like onion peel for rich mahogany and beet root for reds and pinks. Nowadays you can find a wide range of food coloring to dye Ester Eggs.

The symbolism of eggs as religious objects dates back to Ukraine’s pre-Christian past, and decorated eggs have always been a part of religious celebrations there. Decorating eggs for Easter was banned under Soviet rule as a religious practice, but kept alive by many crafters working in secret.

“Krashanky”

There are many non-Biblical religious legends about eggs in Ukraine, including a basket of eggs that Mary Magdalene brought for her food when she went to the sepulcher to anoint Christ’s body. According to the legend, when she uncovered the eggs at the tomb, the white shells had been miraculously turned all the colors of the rainbow.

Bread (Paska)

Traditional Ukrainian “Paska” – Easter Bread.

My grandmother baked all her Eastern bread Paskas in old fashion “pich” – Ukrainian stove. I loved to wake up to heavenly aroma and beautiful sight of a dozen paskas in tin cans rising in a stove. Traditional paska loaves are tall and cylindrical, with symbols made of rolled dough or dusted in flour on the top.

The production of the paska was traditionally a ceremonial affair, during which the household was expected to stay quiet and still. We could really get in trouble with my sister if we would slam the door when entering the room where the dough was rising! The recipes of Paskas vary from area to area. In my mom’s city they always baked very sweet and fluffy Paskas and in my dad’s native land they were more savory and dense. The women preparing the bread were told to keep their thoughts pure as they kneaded it. Men sometimes stood guard outside the home to ward off evil spirits during the making of the paska (and to keep out neighbors, so that the household stayed quiet).

Easter Baskets & Easter Mass

The paska bread, along with dyed krashanky eggs and non-Lenten foods like sausage, cheese, lard, and ham, is placed in a basket with lit candles and brought to church for Mass on Easter morning. (Midnight masses are traditional, but some modern churches do a daytime mass in the morning nowadays.)

Services often include a procession around the church. Many churches put up a mock sepulcher or black draping on Good Friday, and those are removed by the congregation as part of the procession.

The Easter baskets are blessed by the priest as part of the mass, and taken home by the families to eat in the morning.

Easter Sunday

After the mass (and sometimes after going back to sleep), families celebrate Easter morning with a feast from their Easter baskets. The paska, meat, cheese, and other “feast” foods are consumed, breaking the Lenten fast.

Many households begin the feast with the dyed krashanky eggs. All kids favorite part of the morning is the game called “egg battles” or “egg knocking”: two people rap their eggs together, and if someone’s eggshell breaks, that person is out of the game (or has to give the egg up, or eat it, depending on family tradition).

Ukraine does not have the concept of an “Easter bunny,” or of Easter egg hunts, and chocolate and candy do not play a traditional role. These days the Easter basket might include a bit of chocolate, but the savory treats are still the focus of the morning meal.

Remembering Those Who Passed Away

Easter celebrations traditionally extend into the next week in Ukraine.

The week after Easter is also a time for memorializing the dead in Ukraine. Families bring baskets of food and small gifts to cemeteries and leave them for their ancestors. This is often a religious ceremony, accompanied by a priest who blesses the graves. Every region and village has it its own day for this ceremony but usually it stays within the range of 1 week after the Easter Sunday. Thankfully for this tradition I became knowledgeable about my great-great relatives, stories of their lives and where I come from.

From start to finish, Ukrainian Easter is a long holiday season: all the way from Palm Sunday a week before Easter to the graveyard visits a week after! Of course in modern life for many families Easter traditions are no more than Saturday trip to the closest market to buy Paska, meat and Krashanky. Years of Soviet Union time did not help to pass real traditions to young people, but thanks to our dear Ukrainian “babushkas” all the extended customs are kept alive. Many of the traditions are unique to Ukraine, and will hopefully go on flourishing for many more generations.

BY OLENA CENTENO

Watch the video and compare the traditions in UK and in Ukraine

вівторок, 26 квітня 2016 р.

Causative form

субота, 23 квітня 2016 р.

Mass media

Read the text and fill in the missing sentences:

We can not imagine our life without mass media. Our Information Age is determined in many respects by the mass media. The mass media do not only spread the news, they impose certain values on contemporary men. The received information moulds the way of people's thinking.1)___________ .Previously it took news months to travel from one country to another; today it takes it only several seconds. People started to get news comparatively quickly with the appearance of newspapers. Newspapers are very important for a contemporary man. The choice of the newspapers is wide. 2) _____________ Quality newspapers are serious national papers intended for educated readers. Popular newspapers are tabloid, they are designed for common readers. Radio became widely used during World War I. At the turn of the 20th century TV became part of people's daily life. 3)____________. It informs, educates and entertains men. The Internet is the recent innovation. It has broken the traditional frontiers and helps people to establish contacts. 4)_______________ The Internet is turning our planet into a global village. To have a comprehensive picture of what is going on, people must watch TV programmes, read newspapers and magazines, use the Internet, but do it selectively.

a. Now all newspapers are classified into two groups; quality and popular.
b. Due to the Internet I have found a lot friends in different countries, I have visited the greatest world museums and art galleries without leaving my apartment.
c. TV offers to its viewers current affairs programs, cultural programs, chat shows, sports programs, etc.
d. Sometimes information given by television, radio, newspapers and the Internet is contradictory and man must decide which one is more reliable.

Read the text and choose the correct option:

Nowadays the mass media 1)____________daily and essential necessity with contemporary men. The mass media report about various aspects of life, they form and affect public opinion. The mass media comprise newspapers, radio, TV and the Internet. In this or that form the mass media come into every home. The Internet 2)_______________ in 1983. Since that time it has grown beyond its largely academic origin into an increasingly commercial and popular medium. The Internet connects many computer networks. The Internet has connected millions of computers throughout the world. Newspaper are usually issued daily, weekly, or 3)___________ other regular times. They provide news, views, features, and other information of public interest and often carry advertising. The first English printed news book the "Weekly News" appeared in London 4)_________ 1621. In 1771 Parliament gave journalists the right to report its proceedings. Newspapers come out to provide their readers 5)__________ fresh news. Today people have a chance to have full information about political, economic and cultural events in their own country and abroad. Radio appeared earlier than TV. In 1901 ah Italian physicist named Guglielrno Marconi received wireless telegraphic messages sent 6) _________Cornwall to Newfoundland. It was hailed as a triumph. Radio underwent rapid improvement in the period before World War II. Today there are a lot of radio stations of many different types and so much variety. Talk shows and music programmes with disc jockeys are very popular. Now almost every family in the civilised world has a TV set. Television plays an important role in our society, not only as an entertainer and informant, but also because of the grip it has on many people. Television channels easily go into people's home taking 7)___________ their time and life.

1. a) became; B) have become; C) has become; D) was become;

2. A) has been created; B) created; C) have been created; D) was created;

3. A) at; B) in; C)after; d) about;

4. A) around; B) in; C) on; d) after;

5. A) about; b) at; C) with; D) in;

6. A) from; B) to; C in; D) of;

7 A) on; B) at; C) in; D) for;

вівторок, 15 березня 2016 р.

Grammar To the top. Set expressions with tell, say, set

середа, 2 березня 2016 р.

test 1

If you want to do this test on-line follow the link: http://www.dpa2016.com.ua

вівторок, 1 березня 2016 р.

Vocabulary Exam

понеділок, 29 лютого 2016 р.

Ukraine.History of Ukraine.

http://www.accounting-ukraine.kiev.ua/history_ukraine.htm

http://censor.net.ua/video_news/385679/potryasayuschaya_molitva_dobrovoltsev_polka_natsgvardii_azov_ukrano_svyata_mati_gerov_zyidi_do_sertsya

The territory of Ukraine was inhabited by Neanderthals for at least 44,000 years. Prehistoric Ukraine as part of the Pontic steppe and has been an important factor in Eurasian cultural contact, including the spread of the Chalcolithic, the Bronze Age, Indo-European expansion and the domestication of the horse.

Part of Scythia in antiquity and settled by Getae, in the migration period, Ukraine is also the site of early Slavic expansion, and enters history proper with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus, which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages but disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, present Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers: the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland, during the 15th century these lands came under the rule of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569), and Crimean Khanate. After a 1653 rebellion against dominantly Polish Catholic rule, an assembly of the people (rada) agreed to the Treaty of Pereyaslav in January 1654. Soon, the southeastern portion of the Polish-Lithuanian empire east of the Dnieper River came under Russian rule, for centuries. After the Partitions of Poland (1772–1795) and conquest of Crimean Khanate, Ukraine was divided between the Tsardom of Russia and Habsburg Austria.

A chaotic period of warfare ensued after the Russian Revolution. The internationally recognized Ukrainian People's Republic emerged from its own civil war. The Ukrainian–Soviet War followed, in which the bolsheviks Red Army established control in late 1919.[6] The Ukrainian Bolsheviks, who had defeated national government in Kiev, created the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which on 30 December 1922 became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. Initial Soviet policy on Ukrainian language and Ukrainian culture made Ukrainian the official language of administration and schools. Policy in the 1930s turned to russification. In 1932 and 1933, millions of people, mostly peasants, in Ukraine starved to death in a devastating famine. It is estimated that 6 to 8 million people died from hunger in the Soviet Union during this period, of whom 4 to 5 million were Ukrainians. Nikita Khrushchev was appointed the head of the Ukrainian Communist Party in 1938.

After the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and Soviet Union, the Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward. Ukraine was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1941 to 1944. During World War II the Ukrainian Insurgent Army fought for Ukrainian independence against both Germany and the Soviet Union. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations. After Stalin's death, as head of the Communist Party of Soviet Union, Khrushchev enabled a Ukrainian revival. Nevertheless, there were further political repressions against poets, historians and other intellectuals, like in all other parts of the USSR. In 1954, the republic expanded to the south with the transfer of the Crimea.

Ukraine became independent again when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession. Since then, however, the economy has experienced a high increase in GDP growth. Ukraine was caught up in the worldwide economic crisis in 2008 and the economy plunged. GDP fell 20% from spring 2008 to spring 2009, then leveled off.

The prolonged Ukrainian crisis began on 21 November 2013, when then-president Viktor Yanukovych suspended preparations for the implementation of an association agreement with the European Union. This decision resulted in mass protests by its supporters, known as the "Euromaidan". After months of such protests, Yanukovych was ousted by the protesters on 22 February 2014. Following his ousting, unrest enveloped the largely Russophone eastern and southern regions of Ukraine, from where he had drawn most of his support. An invasion by Russia in Ukrainian autonomous region of Crimea resulted in the annexation of Crimea by Russia on 18 March 2014. Subsequently, unrest in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts of Ukraine evolved into a war between the post-revolutionary Ukrainian government and pro-Russian insurgents. The Ukrainian crisis also very negatively influenced the Ukrainian economy.

Prehistory

Archaeological cultures associated with proto-Slavs and early Slavs:Chernoles culture (before 500 BC),Zarubintsy culture (300 BC to AD 100),Przeworsk culture (300 BC to AD 400),Prague-Korchak horizon (6th to 7th century, Slavic expansion)

Settlement in Ukraine by members of the homo genus has been documented into distant prehistory. The Neanderthals are associated with the Molodova archaeological sites (43,000-45,000 BC) which include a mammoth bone dwelling.^[11]^[12] Gravettian settlements dating to 32,000 BC have been unearthed and studied in the Buran-Kaya cave site of the Crimean Mountains.^[13]^[14]

Around 10,000 years ago the world's longest river^[15] emptied glacier melted water through the Don and the Black Sea. From springs in Gobi it flowed along the Yenisei, which was then dammed by northern glaciers. Through the West Siberian Glacial Lake flowed about 10,000 km;^[16] It was longer than any river known today.^[17]

Extent of the Chalcolithic Yamna or "pit grave" culture, 3rd millennium BC

The late Neolithic times the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished from about 4500–3000 BC.^[18]The Copper Age people of the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture resided in the western part, and theSredny Stog Culture further east, succeeded by the early Bronze Age Yamna ("Kurgan") culture of the steppes, and by the Catacomb culture in the 3rd millennium BC.

History

During the Iron Age, these were followed by the Dacians as well as nomadic peoples like theCimmerians, Scythians and Sarmatians. The Scythian Kingdom existed here from 750–250 BC.^[19]Along with ancient Greek colonies founded in the 6th century BC on the northeastern shore of theBlack Sea, the colonies of Tyras, Olbia, Hermonassa, continued as Roman and Byzantine cities until the 6th century.

In the 3rd century AD, the Goths arrived in the lands of Ukraine around 250–375 AD, which they called Oium, corresponding to the archaeological Chernyakhov culture.^[20] The Ostrogoths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. North of the Ostrogothic kingdom was the Kiev culture, flourishing from the 2nd–5th centuries, when it was overrun by the Huns. After they helped defeat the Huns at the battle of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths were allowed by Romans to settle in Pannonia.

With the power vacuum created with the end of Hunnic and Gothic rule, Slavic tribes, possibly emerging from the remnants of the Kiev culture, began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, and beyond to the Balkans from the 6th century.

In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was the core of the state of the Bulgars (often referred to as Old Great Bulgaria) with its capital city of Phanagoria. At the end of the 7th century, most Bulgar tribes migrated in several directions and the remains of their state were absorbed by the Khazars, a semi-nomadic people from Central Asia.^[20]

The Khazars founded the Khazar kingdom in the southeastern part of today's Europe, near the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. The kingdom included western Kazakhstan, and parts of eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, southern Russia, and Crimea. Around 800 AD, the kingdom converted to Judaism.

Middle Ages

Kievan Rus'

Overseas Guests by Nicholas Roerich, 1899

As Hrushevsky states, the city of Kiev was established during the time when area around the mid- and low-Dnipro was the part of the Khazar state. He derived that information from local legends because no written chronicles from that period are left.

In 882, Kiev was conquered from the Khazars by the Varangian noble Oleg who started the long period of rule of the Rurikid princes. During this time, several Slavic tribes were native to Ukraine, including the Polans, the Drevlyans, the Severians, the Ulichs, the Tiverians, the White Croats and the Dulebes. Situated on lucrative trade routes, Kiev among the Polanians quickly prospered as the center of the powerful Slavic state of Kievan Rus.

Kievan Rus' including the territory of current day Ukraine: last 20 years of the state (1220–1240).

Main article: Kievan Rus'

In CE 941, the prince of Kiev invaded the Byzantine Empire but was defeated in the Rus'–Byzantine War (941).

In the 11th century, Kievan Rus' was, geographically, the largest state in Europe, becoming known in the rest of Europe as Ruthenia (the Latin name for Rus'), especially for western principalities of Rus' after the Mongol invasion. The name "Ukraine", meaning "in-land" or "native-land",^[21] usually interpreted as "border-land", first appears in historical documents of 12th century^[22] and then on history maps of the 16th century period.^[23]

This term seems to have been synonymous with the land of Rus' propria—the principalities of Kiev, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav. The term, "Greater Rus'" was used to apply to all the lands ruled by Kiev, including those that were not just Slavic, but also Uralic in the north-east portions of the state. Local regional subdivisions of Rus' appeared in the Slavic heartland, including, "Belarus'" (White Ruthenia), "Chorna Rus'" (Black Ruthenia) and "Cherven' Rus'" (Red Ruthenia) in northwestern and western Ukraine.

Christianization

Main article: History of Christianity in Ukraine

The baptism of Princess Olga inConstantinople. A miniature from theRadzivill Chronicle.

Although Christianity had made headway into the territory of Ukraine before the first ecumenical council, the Council of Nicaea (325) (particularly along the Black Sea coast) and, in western Ukraine during the time of empire of Great Moravia, the formal governmental acceptance of Christianity in Rus' occurred at in 988. The major promoter of the Christianization of Kievan Rus' was the Grand-Duke, Vladimir the Great (Volodymyr). His Christian interest was midwifed by his grandmother, Princess Olga. Later, an enduring part of the East-Slavic legal tradition was set down by the Kievan ruler,Yaroslav I, who promulgated the Russkaya Pravda (Truth of Rus') which endured through the Lithuanian period of Rus'.

Conflict among the various principalities of Rus', in spite of the efforts of Grand Prince Vladimir Monomakh, led to decline, beginning in the 12th century. In Rus' propria, the Kiev region, the nascent Rus' principalities of Halych and Volynia extended their rule. In the north, the name of Moscow appeared in the historical record in the principality of Suzdal, which gave rise to the nation of Russia. In the north-west, the principality of Polotsk increasingly asserted the autonomy of Belarus'. Kiev was sacked by Vladimir principality (1169) in the power struggle between princes and later by Cumans and Mongol raiders in the 12th and 13th centuries, respectively. Subsequently, all principalities of present-day Ukraine acknowledged dependence upon the Mongols (1239–1240). In 1240, the Mongols sacked Kiev, and many people fled to other countries.

Five years after the fall of Kiev, Papal envoy Giovanni da Pian del Carpine wrote:

"They destroyed cities and castles and killed men and Kiev, which is the greatest Russian city they besieged; and when they had besieged it a long while they took it and killed the people of the city. So when we went through that country we found countless human skulls and bones from the dead scattered over the field. Indeed it had been a very great and populous city and now is reduced almost to nothing. In fact there are hardly two hundred houses there now and the people are held in the strictest servitude."^[24]

Galicia-Volhynia

The Galician–Volhynian Kingdom in the 13th–14th centuries

Main article: Galicia-Volhynia

A successor state to the Kievan Rus' on part of the territory of today's Ukraine was the principality of Galicia-Volhynia. Previously, Vladimir the Great had established the cities of Halych and Ladomir (later Volodimer) as regional capitals. This state was based upon the Dulebe,Tiverian and White Croat tribes.

The state was ruled by the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh. For a brief period, the country was ruled by a Hungarian nobleman. Battles with the neighboring states of Poland and Lithuania also occurred, as well as internecine warfare with the independent Ruthenian principality of Chernihiv to the east. At its greatest extension the territory of Galicia-Volhynia included laterWallachia/Bessarabia, thus reaching the shores of the Black Sea.

During this period (around 1200–1400), each principality was independent of the other for a period. The state of Halych-Volynia eventually became a vassal to the Mongolian Empire, but efforts to gain European support for opposition to the Mongols continued. This period marked the first "King of Rus'"; previously, the rulers of Rus' were termed, "Grand Dukes" or "Princes."

The 14th century

Early modern period

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Kingdom of Poland

After the Union of Lublin in 1569 and the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Ukraine fell under Polish administration, becoming part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. The period immediately following the creation of the Commonwealth saw a huge revitalisation in colonisation efforts. Many new cities and villages were founded.

New schools spread the ideas of the Renaissance; Polish peasants arrived in great numbers and quickly became mixed with the local population; during this time, most of Ukrainian nobles became polonised and converted to Catholicism, and while most Ruthenian-speaking peasants remained within the Eastern Orthodox Church, social tension rose.

Ruthenian peasants who fled efforts to force them into serfdom came to be known as Cossacks and earned a reputation for their fierce martial spirit. Some Cossacks were enlisted by the Commonwealth as soldiers to protect the southeastern borders of Poland from Tatars or took part in campaigns abroad (like Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny in the battle of Khotyn 1621). Cossack units were also active in wars between thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Tsardom of Russia. Despite the Cossack's military usefulness, the Commonwealth, dominated by itsnobility, refused to grant them any significant autonomy, instead attempting to turn most of the Cossack population into serfs. This led to an increasing number of Cossack rebellions aimed at the Commonwealth.

Cossack era

Zaporozhian Cossacks

The Hetmanate in 1654 (against the backdrop of contemporary Ukraine)

Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary

Modern history

Taras Shevchenko self-portrait, 1840

17th and 18th Century Ukraine

Ukraine emerges as the concept of a nation, and the Ukrainians as a nationality, with the Ukrainian National Revival in the mid-18th century, in the wake of the peasant revolt of 1768/69 and the eventual partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Galicia fell to the Austrian Empire, and the rest of Ukraine to the Russian Empire.

While right-bank Ukraine belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until late 1793, left-bank Ukraine had been incorporated into Tsardom of Russia in 1667 (under the Treaty of Andrusovo). In 1672, Podolia was occupied by the Turkish Ottoman Empire, while Kiev and Braclav came under the control of Hetman Petro Doroshenko until 1681, when they were also captured by the Turks but in 1699 the Treaty of Karlowitzreturned those lands to the Commonwealth.

Most of Ukraine fell to the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine the Great; in 1793 right-bank Ukraine was annexed by Russia in theSecond Partition of Poland.^[28]

Ukrainian writers and intellectuals were inspired by the nationalistic spirit stirring other European peoples existing under other imperial governments. Russia, fearing separatism, imposed strict limits on attempts to elevate the Ukrainian language and culture, even banning its use and study. The Russophile policies of Russification and Panslavism led to an exodus of a number some Ukrainian intellectuals into Western Ukraine, while others embraced a Pan-Slavic or Russian identity. This led to many of the great Russian authors and composers of the 19th century being of Ukrainian origin (notably Nikolai Gogol and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky).